Last Updated on August 28, 2020 Model averaging is an ensemble technique where multiple sub-models contribute equally to a combined prediction. Model averaging can be improved by weighting the contributions of each sub-model to the combined prediction by the expected performance of the submodel. This can be extended further by training an entirely new model to learn how to best combine the contributions from each submodel. This approach is called stacked generalization, or stacking for short, and can result in […]

Last Updated on August 25, 2020 Supervised learning is challenging, although the depths of this challenge are often learned then forgotten or willfully ignored. This must be the case, because dwelling too long on this challenge may result in a pessimistic outlook. In spite of the challenge, we continue to wield supervised learning algorithms and they perform well in practice. Fundamental to the challenge of supervised learning, are the concerns: How much data is needed to reasonably approximate the unknown […]

Last Updated on August 28, 2020 Model ensembles can achieve lower generalization error than single models but are challenging to develop with deep learning neural networks given the computational cost of training each single model. An alternative is to train multiple model snapshots during a single training run and combine their predictions to make an ensemble prediction. A limitation of this approach is that the saved models will be similar, resulting in similar predictions and predictions errors and not offering […]

Last Updated on August 28, 2020 The training process of neural networks is a challenging optimization process that can often fail to converge. This can mean that the model at the end of training may not be a stable or best-performing set of weights to use as a final model. One approach to address this problem is to use an average of the weights from multiple models seen toward the end of the training run. This is called Polyak-Ruppert averaging […]

Last Updated on August 20, 2020 In a neural network, the activation function is responsible for transforming the summed weighted input from the node into the activation of the node or output for that input. The rectified linear activation function or ReLU for short is a piecewise linear function that will output the input directly if it is positive, otherwise, it will output zero. It has become the default activation function for many types of neural networks because a model […]

Last Updated on August 25, 2020 The vanishing gradients problem is one example of unstable behavior that you may encounter when training a deep neural network. It describes the situation where a deep multilayer feed-forward network or a recurrent neural network is unable to propagate useful gradient information from the output end of the model back to the layers near the input end of the model. The result is the general inability of models with many layers to learn on […]

Last Updated on August 6, 2019 Developing neural networks is often referred to as a dark art. The reason for this is that being skilled at developing neural network models comes from experience. There are no reliable methods to analytically calculate how to design a “good” or “best” model for your specific dataset. You must draw on experience and experiment in order to discover what works on your problem. A lot of this experience can come from actually developing neural […]

Last Updated on December 4, 2019 Training deep neural networks with tens of layers is challenging as they can be sensitive to the initial random weights and configuration of the learning algorithm. One possible reason for this difficulty is the distribution of the inputs to layers deep in the network may change after each mini-batch when the weights are updated. This can cause the learning algorithm to forever chase a moving target. This change in the distribution of inputs to […]

Last Updated on August 25, 2020 Batch normalization is a technique designed to automatically standardize the inputs to a layer in a deep learning neural network. Once implemented, batch normalization has the effect of dramatically accelerating the training process of a neural network, and in some cases improves the performance of the model via a modest regularization effect. In this tutorial, you will discover how to use batch normalization to accelerate the training of deep learning neural networks in Python […]