Watch Now This tutorial has a related video course created by the Real Python team. Watch it together with the written tutorial to deepen your understanding: Binary, Bytes, and Bitwise Operators in Python Computers store all kinds of information as a stream of binary digits called bits. Whether you’re working with text, images, or videos, they all boil down to ones and zeros. Python’s bitwise operators let you manipulate those individual bits of data at the most granular level. You […]

In Python, a closure is typically a function defined inside another function. This inner function grabs the objects defined in its enclosing scope and associates them with the inner function object itself. The resulting combination is called a closure. Closures are a common feature in functional programming languages. In Python, closures can be pretty useful because they allow you to create function-based decorators, which are powerful tools. In this video course, you’ll: Learn what closures are and how they work […]

Python’s isinstance() function helps you determine if an object is an instance of a specified class or its superclass, aiding in writing cleaner and more robust code. You use it to confirm that function parameters are of the expected types, allowing you to handle type-related issues preemptively. This tutorial explores how isinstance() works, its use with subclasses, and how it differs from type(). By the end of this tutorial, you’ll understand that: isinstance() checks if an object is a member […]

The scope of a variable in Python determines where in your code that variable is visible and accessible. Python has four general scope levels: local, enclosing, global, and built-in. When searching for a name, Python goes through these scopes in order. It follows the LEGB rule, which stands for Local, Enclosing, Global, and Built-in. Understanding how Python manages the scope of variables and names is a fundamental skill for you as a Python developer. It helps you avoid unexpected behavior […]

marimo notebooks redefine the notebook experience by offering a reactive environment that addresses the limitations of traditional linear notebooks. With marimo, you can seamlessly reproduce and share content while benefiting from automatic cell updates and a correct execution order. Discover how marimo’s features make it an ideal tool for documenting research and learning activities. By the end of this video course, you’ll understand that: marimo notebooks automatically update dependent cells, ensuring consistent results across your work. Reactivity allows marimo to […]

Interactive Quiz ⋅ 7 QuestionsBy Geir Arne Hjelle Share In this quiz, you’ll test your understanding of How to Debug Common Python Errors. Debugging means identifying, analyzing, and resolving issues in your Python code. You’ll revisit reading tracebacks, using print() for value tracking, setting breakpoints to pause execution, and writing tests to catch errors. Good luck! The quiz contains 7 questions and there is no time limit. You’ll get 1 point for each correct answer. At the end of the […]

Python debugging involves identifying and fixing errors in your code using tools like tracebacks, print() calls, breakpoints, and tests. In this tutorial, you’ll learn how to interpret error messages, use print() to track variable values, and set breakpoints to pause execution and inspect your code’s behavior. You’ll also explore how writing tests can help prevent errors and ensure your code runs as expected. By the end of this tutorial, you’ll understand that: Debugging means identifying, analyzing, and resolving issues in […]

Interactive Quiz ⋅ 7 QuestionsBy Martin Breuss Share In this quiz, you’ll test your knowledge of Python’s __init__.py file. Understanding this file’s role will help you create more organized and reusable Python code. The quiz contains 7 questions and there is no time limit. You’ll get 1 point for each correct answer. At the end of the quiz, you’ll receive a total score. The maximum score is 100%. Good luck! Related Resources

Python’s special __init__.py file marks a directory as a regular Python package and allows you to import its modules. This file runs automatically the first time you import its containing package. You can use it to initialize package-level variables, define functions or classes, and structure the package’s namespace clearly for users. By the end of this tutorial, you’ll understand that: A directory without an __init__.py file becomes a namespace package, which behaves differently from a regular package and may cause […]

In Python, a protocol specifies the methods and attributes that a class must implement to be considered of a given type. Protocols are important in Python’s type hint system, which allows for static type checking through external tools, such as mypy, Pyright, and Pyre. Before there were protocols, these tools could only check for nominal subtyping based on inheritance. There was no way to check for structural subtyping, which relies on the internal structure of classes. This limitation affected Python’s […]